NDT Levels of Certification
Most NDT personnel certification schemes listed above specify three "levels" of qualification and / or certification, usually designated as Level 1, Level 2 and Level 3 (although some codes specify Roman numerals, like Level II). The roles and responsibilities of personnel in each level are generally as follows (there are slight differences or variations between different codes and standards).
Level 1 are technicians qualified to perform only specific calibrations and tests under close supervision and direction by higher level personnel. They can only report test results. Normally they work following specific work instructions for testing procedures and rejection criteria.
Level 2 are engineers or experienced technicians who are able to set up and calibrate testing equipment, conduct the inspection according to codes and standards (instead of following work instructions) and compile work instructions for Level 1 technicians. They are also authorized to report, interpret, evaluate and document testing results. They can also supervise and train Level 1 technicians. In addition to testing methods, they must be familiar with applicable codes and standards and have some knowledge of the manufacture and service of tested products.
Level 3 are usually specialized engineers or very experienced technicians. They can establish NDT techniques and procedures and interpret codes and standards. They also direct NDT laboratories and have central role in personnel certification. They are expected to have wider knowledge covering materials, fabrication and product technology.
Training and Certification
- PAUT
- TOFD
- LR UT
- Pressure Vessel and Heat Exchanges Design
- Piping, Valves and PSV Design
- Above Ground Storage Tanks and Atmospheric Tank Design
- QA/QC Inspector
- NDT Level -I/1 and Level-II/2
- ASNT NDT LEVEL III/3 Preparatory as below
- NDT Basic
- Administration of NDT personnel certification programs
- General familiarity with other NDT methods
- Materials, fabrication, and production technology
- AE - Acoustic Emission Testing
- Instrumentation and Signal processing
- Cables
- Signal conditioning
- Signal detection
- Signal processing
- Source Location techniques
- Acoustic emission test systems
- Accessory techniques
- Advanced signal processing techniques
- Acoustic Emission Test Techniques
- Factors affecting test equipment selection
- Equipment calibration and setup for test
- Loading procedures
- Special test procedures
- Data display
- Noise sources and pre-test identification techniques
- Precautions against noise
- Data interpretation
- Data evaluation
- Reports
- Codes, Standards, Procedures, and Societies
- Guide-type standards (glossaries, calibration, etc.)
- Standardized/codified AE test procedures
- User-developed test procedures
- Societies active in AE
- Applications of Acoustic Emission Testing
- ET - Electromagnetic Testing
- Principles/Theory
- Equipment Materials
- Probes
- Factors affecting choice of sensing elements
- Read out selection
- Instrument design considerations
- Techniques/Calibrations
- Factors which affect coil impedance
- Selection of test frequency
- Coupling
- Field strength
- Interpretation/Evaluation
- Procedures
- IR - Thermal/Infrared Testing
- Principles/Theory
- Conduction
- Convection
- Radiation
- The nature of heat and heat flow
- Temperature measurement principles
- Proper selection of Thermal/Infrared testing
- Equipment/Materials
- Temperature measurement equipment
- Heat flux indicators
- Performance parameters of non-contact devices
- Techniques
- Contact temperature indicators
- Non-contact pyrometers
- Infrared line scanners
- Thermal/Infrared imaging
- Heat flux indicators
- Exothermic or endothermic investigations
- Friction investigations
- Fluid Flow investigations
- Thermal resistance (steady state heat flow)
- Thermal capacitance investigations
- Interpretation/Evaluation
- Procedures
- Safety and health
- Safety responsibility and authority
- Safety for personnel
- Safety for client and facilities
- Safety for testing equipment
- LT - Leak Testing
- Principles theory
- Equipment/Material
- Technique/Calibration
- Interpretation/Evaluation
- Procedures
- Leak testing procedures
- Leak testing specifications
- Safety and Health
- MFL - Magnetic Flux Leakage
- Principles/Theory
- Equipment/Materials
- Techniques/Standardization
- Interpretation/Evaluation
- Standards
- Procedures
- MT - Magnetic Particle Testing
- Principles/Theory
- Principles of magnets and magnetic fields
- Characteristics of magnetic fields
- Equipment/Materials
- Magnetic particle test equipment
- Inspection materials
- Technique/Calibrations
- Magnetization by means if electric current
- Selecting the proper method of magnetization
- Demagnetization
- Interpretation/Evaluation
- Procedures
- Safety and Health
- NR - Neutron Radiographic Testing
- Principles/Theory
- Nature of penetrating radiation
- Interaction between penetrating radiation and matter
- Neutron radiography
- Radiometry
- Equipment/Materials
- Sources of neutrons
- Radiation detectors
- Nonimaging devices
- Techniques/Calibrations
- Blocking and filtering
- Multifilm technique
- Enlargement and projection
- Stereoradiography
- Triangulation methods
- Autoradiography
- Flash Radiography
- In-motion radiography
- Fluoroscopy
- Electron emission radiography
- Microradiography
- Laminography (tomography)
- Control of diffraction effects
- Panoramic exposures
- Gaging
- Real time imaging
- Image analysis techniques
- Interpretation/Evaluation
- Radiographic interpretation
- Procedures
- imaging considerations
- Film processing
- Viewing of radiographs
- Judging radiographic quality
- Safety and Health
- Personnel safety and radiation hazards
- PT - Liquid Penetrant Testing
- Principles/Theory
- Principles of liquid penetrant process
- Theory
- Proper selection of PT as method of choice
- Liquid penetrant processing
- Equipment/Materials
- Liquid penetrant test units
- Methods of measurement
- Lighting for liquid penetrant testing
- Materials for liquid penetrant testing
- Testing and maintenance of materials
- Interpretation/Evaluation
- General
- Factor affecting indications
- Indications from discontinuities
- Relevant and Nonrelevant indications
- Procedures
- Liquid penetrant testing procedures, codes, standards and specifications
- Safety and Health
- Toxicity
- Flammability
- Electrical hazards
- Personnel protective equipment
- Right to know (MSDS)
- Disposal of used materials
- RT - Radiographic Testing
- Principles and Theory
- Equipment/Materials
- Electrically generated sources
- Particulate radiation sources
- Radiation detectors
- Techniques/Calibration
- Imaging considerations
- Film processing
- Viewing of radiographs
- Judging radiographic quality
- Exposure calculations
- Radiographic techniques
- Interpretation and Evaluation
- Procedures
- Safety and Health
- Exposure hazards
- Methods of controlling radiation exposure
- Operational and emergency procedures
- Dosimetry and Film Badge
- UT - Ultrasonic Testing
- Principles/Theory
- Equipment/Materials
- Techniques/Calibrations
- Interpretation/Evaluations
- Procedures
- Safety and Health
- VA - Vibration Analysis
- Principles/Theory
- Equipment
- Techniques/Calibration
- Analysis/Evaluation
- Procedures
- Safety and Health
- VT - Visual and Optical Testing
- Fundamentals
- Vision and light
- Ambient conditions
- Test object characteristics
- Equipment Accessories
- Magnifiers/microscopes
- Mirrors
- Dimensional
- Borescopes
- Video systems
- Machine vision
- Replication
- Temperature indicating devices and materials
- Chemical aids
- Surface comparators
- Lasers
- Applications and Requirements
- Raw materials
- Primary process materials
- Joining processes
- Fabricated components
- In-service materials
- Coatings
- Other applications
- Requirements
- Variables Affecting Results of interpretation/ Evaluations
- Equipment including type and intensity of light
- Material including the variations of surface finish
- Discontinuity
- Determination of dimensions (ie: depth, width, length, etc.)
- Sampling/scanning
- Process for reporting visual discontinuities
- Personnel (human factors)
- Documentation
- Safety
- General metal loss
- Local metal loss and gouges
- Pitting corrosion
- Blisters and laminations
- Weld misalignment, dents and shell distortions
- Crack-like flaws
- Creep damage
- Fire damage
- Stress Analysis. An accurate estimate of stresses acting on the component of interest is e to assessing structural integrity and remaining life.
- Metallurgy/Materials Engineering. An understanding of the performance of various materials subject to specific environments, temperatures, and stress levels is essential for ensuring safe and reliable operation.
- Nondestructive Examination (NDE). Flaws must be detected and sized before they can be assessed. The most suitable inspection technology depends on a variety of factors, including type of the flaws or damage present and the accessibility of the region of interest.
- Corrosion. An understanding of environmental degradation mechanism(s) that led to the observed damage is a prerequisite for FFS assessments Moreover expertise in corrosion is useful for prescribing suitable remediation measures.
- Plant Operations. Interaction with plant personnel is usually necessary to understand the operating parameters for the equipment of interest. Information such as operating temperature & pressure, process environment, and startup/shutdown procedures are key inputs to a FFS assessment.
- Fracture Mechanics. This discipline is used to analyze cracks and other planar flaws.
- Probability and Statistics. This discipline is useful for data analysis and for probabilistic risk assessments.
NDT Basic
SNT-TC-1A, 2011 edition
ASNT CP-189, 2011 edition
Radiography (safety, X-ray, and isotope methods)
Neutron radiography
Ultrasonic testing
Eddy current and flux leakage testing
Liquid penetrant testing
Magnetic particle testing
Leak testing
Acoustic emission testing
Visual testing
Thermal/infrared
Properties of materials, origin of discontinuities, and failure modes
Materials processing (casting, welding, forging, brazing, soldering, machining, heat treatment, surface treatment, adhesive bonding, etc.)
Dimensional metrology
AE - Acoustic Emission Testing
Electromagnetic Testing (ET)
Electromagnetic testing is a general test category that includes Eddy Current testing, Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM), and Remote Field testing. While magnetic particle testing is also an electromagnetic test, due to its widespread use it is considered a stand-alone test method rather as than an electromagnetic testing technique. All of these techniques use the induction of an electric current or magnetic field into a conductive part, then the resulting effects are recorded and evaluated.
Thermal/Infrared Testing (IR)
Infrared/Thermal Testing, or infrared thermography, is used to measure or map surface temperatures based on the infrared radiation given off by an object as heat flows through, to or from that object. The majority of infrared radiation is longer in wavelength than visible light but can be detected using thermal imaging devices, commonly called "infrared cameras." For accurate IR testing, the part(s) being investigated should be in direct line of sight with the camera, i.e., should not be done with panel covers closed as the covers will diffuse the heat and can result in false readings. Used properly, thermal imaging can be used to detect corrosion damage, delaminations, disbonds, voids, inclusions as well as many other detrimental conditions.
Leak Testing (LT)
Leak Testing is used to detect through leaks using one of the four major LT techniques: Bubble, Pressure Change, Halogen Diode and Mass Spectrometer Testing.
Bubble Leak Testing
Bubble Leak Testing, as the name implies, relies on the visual detection of a gas (usually air) leaking from a pressurized system. Small parts can be pressurized and immersed in a tank of liquid and larger vessels can be pressurized and inspected by spraying a soap solution that creates fine bubbles to the area being tested. For flat surfaces, the soap solution can be applied to the surface and a vacuum box can be used to create a negative pressure from the inspection side. If there are through leaks, bubbles will form, showing the location of the leak.
Pressure Change Testing
Pressure Change Testing can be performed on closed systems only. Detection of a leak is done by either pressurizing the system or pulling a vacuum then monitoring the pressure. Loss of pressure or vacuum over a set period of time indicates that there is a leak in the system. Changes in temperature within the system can cause changes in pressure, so readings may have to be adjusted accordingly.
Halogen Diode Testing
Halogen Diode Testing is done by pressurizing a system with a mixture of air and a halogen-based tracer gas. After a set period of time, a halogen diode detection unit, or "sniffer", is used to locate leaks.
Mass Spectrometer Testing
Mass Spectrometer Testing can be done by pressurizing the test part with helium or a helium / air mixture within a test chamber then surveying the surfaces using a sniffer, which sends an air sample back to the spectrometer. Another technique creates a vacuum within the test chamber so that the gas within the pressurized system is drawn into the chamber through any leaks. The mass spectrometer is then used to sample the vacuum chamber and any helium present will be ionized, making very small amounts of helium readily detectable.
Physical principles in leak testing
Principles of gas flow
Proper selection of LT as method of choice
Leak testing standards
Detector/instrument performance factors
Vacuum pumps
Bubble testing practices and techniques
Absolute pressure testing equipment
Absolute pressure hold testing of containers
Absolute pressure leakage rate testing of containers
Analysis of data for determination of accurate results
Halogen testing equipment
Helium mass spectrometer testing equipment
Bubble test
Pressure change/measurement test
Halogen diode detector leak test
Mass spectrometer leak testing
Helium mass spectrometer vacuum testing by dynamic method
Helium mass spectrometer vacuum testing by static method
Basic techniques and/or units
Test materials and equipment effects
Effects of temperature and other atmospheric conditions
Calibration for testing
Probing/scanning or measurement/monitoring
Leak interpretation evaluation
Acceptance and rejection criteria
Safety considerations
Safety precautions
Pressure precautions
Safety devices
Hazardous and tracer gas safety
Types of monitoring equipment
Safety
Magnetic Flux Leakage
Flux leakage theory
Förster and other theories
Finite element methods
DC flux leakage/AC flux leakage
Detectors
Coils
Factors affecting choice of sensing elements
Read out selection
Instrument design considerations
Consideration affecting choice of test
Coupling
Field strength
Comparison of techniques
Standardization
Techniques – general
Flaw detection
Process control
General interpretations
Defect characterization
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
Magnetic Particle Testing uses one or more magnetic fields to locate surface and near-surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. The magnetic field can be applied with a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. When using an electromagnet, the field is present only when the current is being applied. When the magnetic field encounters a discontinuity transverse to the direction of the magnetic field, the flux lines produce a magnetic flux leakage field of their own.
Neutron Radiographic Testing (NR)
Neutron radiography uses an intense beam of low energy neutrons as a penetrating medium rather than the gamma- or x-radiation used in conventional radiography. Generated by linear accelerators, betatrons and other sources, neutrons penetrate most metallic materials, rendering them transparent, but are attenuated by most organic materials (including water, due to its high hydrogen content) which allows those materials to be seen within the component being inspected. When used with conventional radiography, both the structural and internal components of a test piece can be viewed.
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Radiographic Testing (RT)
Industrial radiography involves exposing a test object to penetrating radiation so that the radiation passes through the object being inspected and a recording medium placed against the opposite side of that object. For thinner or less dense materials such as aluminum, electrically generated x-radiation (X-rays) are commonly used, and for thicker or denser materials, gamma radiation is generally used.
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
Ultrasonic testing uses the same principle as is used in naval SONAR and fish finders. Ultra-high frequency sound is introduced into the part being inspected and if the sound hits a material with a different acoustic impedance (density and acoustic velocity), some of the sound will reflect back to the sending unit and can be presented on a visual display. By knowing the speed of the sound through the part (the acoustic velocity) and the time required for the sound to return to the sending unit, the distance to the reflector (the indication with the different acoustic impedance) can be determined.
Contact
Immersion
Comparison of contact and immersion methods
Remote monitoring
Calibration (electronic and functional)
Evaluation of base metal product forms
Evaluation of weldments
Evaluation of bonded structures
Variables affecting test results
Evaluation (general)
Specific applications
Codes/Standards/Specifications
Vibration Analysis (VA)
Vibration analysis refers to the process of monitoring the vibration signatures specific to a piece of rotating machinery and analyzing that information to determine the condition of that equipment. Three types of sensors are commonly used: displacement sensors, velocity sensors and accelerometers.
Physical Concepts
Data Presentation
Sources of Vibration
Correction Methods
Sensors
Signal Conditioning
Instruments
On-Line Monitoring
Equipment Response to Environments Performance Based
Calibration
Measurement and Techniques
Correction Techniques
Data Analysis
Data Evaluation
Visual and Optical Testing (VT)
Visual testing is the most commonly used test method in industry. Because most test methods require that the operator look at the surface of the part being inspected, visual inspection is inherent in most of the other test methods. As the name implies, VT involves the visual observation of the surface of a test object to evaluate the presence of surface discontinuities. VT inspections may be by Direct Viewing, using line-of sight vision, or may be enhanced with the use of optical instruments such as magnifying glasses, mirrors, boroscopes, charge-coupled devices (CCDs) and computer-assisted viewing systems (Remote Viewing). Corrosion, misalignment of parts, physical damage and cracks are just some of the discontinuities that may be detected by visual examinations.
API 579-1/ASME FFS-1
Fitness-for-service assessment is a multi-disciplinary engineering approach that is used to determine if equipment is fit to continue operation for some desired future period. The equipment may contain flaws, have sustained damage, or have aged so that it cannot be evaluated by use of the original construction codes. API 579-1/ASME FFS-1 is a comprehensive consensus industry recommended practice that can be used to analyze, evaluate, and monitor equipment for continued operation. The main types of equipment covered by this standard are pressure vessels, piping, and tanks. This course is timely, emphasizing the practical application of a recently updated standard.
The American Petroleum Institute prepared API 579 specifically for assessing equipment in the refining and petrochemicals sectors designed to ASME codes. The procedures and supporting data relate to ASME design specifications and materials and are consistent with the design philosophy in terms of allowable stresses and factors of safety. A wide range of defect and damage types typically found during in-service inspection of refinery and petrochemical equipment are covered, with corrosion and locally thinned areas given prominence. Defect and damage types specifically considered include:
API 579 has modular organisation based around each defect/damage type. The procedures are largely self contained within each module and derived from recognised authoritative sources. There are extensive annexes containing materials data, design formulae and reference solutions. Each module generally has three levels of assessment.
Level 1 is aimed at inspectors for use on site for quick decisions with the minimum of data and calculation.
Level 2 is intended for qualified engineers and requires simple data and analysis.
Level 3 is an advanced assessment requiring detailed data, computer analysis and considerable technical knowledge and expertise in FFS assessment procedures.
API 579 recognises the need of plant inspectors and engineering personnel on site to be able to undertake a quick initial assessment of defects and damage detected during plant examination. The level 1 procedures are designed for this purpose. Personnel with a broad engineering knowledge and experience can use these procedures with ease, although they may be simplistic and very conservative in some cases.
A more refined FFS assessment can always be made using the level 2 or 3 procedures. The degree of conservatism becomes progressively less as levels increase but this is compensated by the increased knowledge that is available aboutthe equipment, the defect/damage and the margins in hand. Application of level 2 and 3 procedures is usually a more complex process requiring greater specialist knowledge and experience.
Accordingly, API gives guidance for the knowledge and experience of engineers considered competent to undertake FFS assessments to each level. It recognises the need for adequate education and training in FFS assessment so that companies may have confidence in their staff making safe and correct judgements. Whilst qualifications and accreditation of welders, non-destructive testing personnel and plant inspectors have been in existence for some time, there is now perhaps a need to extend these schemes to cover fitness-for service assessment in a more formal way.
The safe use of FFS assessment must depend on having an adequate level of competency, training, information and support necessary to make technical judgements about potentially hazardous equipment. Industry will always like quick simplified procedures that can be used on site without detailed information, analysis and specialist knowledge. Expert systems may be the means to reconcile these aims.
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